Reflective Journal #2
Description:
Chapter five discussed leading behavior and social theories when it comes to learning. Leading theorists Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura proposed that many conditions and motivations play an important role in children learning behaviors. This chapter also defined how teachers can help to implement appropriate behaviors in students and help them to self-regulate their own behaviors in the classroom.
Analysis:
All students have the capacity to learn new things. Sometimes students may learn what you want them to learn and sometimes they may learn a behavior that you did not mean to teach them. This type of learning takes place through observation and conditioning. Learning "is defined as a change in an individual caused by experience (Schunk, 2012)" or "long-lasting change in the learner's knowledge as a result of the learner's experiences" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). Two leading theorists, Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner, both believed that conditioning was involved in learning but classified the conditioning in different ways.
Pavlov believed that learning took place when a subject was presented with a stimulus. His classic example is seen when a dog is presented with a piece of meat (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). When the dog sees the meat he begins to salivate (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). This is called an "unconditioned response" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). The dog does not need any training to have this experience, seeing the meat produces hunger in the dog and therefore he salivates naturally (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). In contrast, if you introduce a different stimulus, such as ringing a bell instead of presenting the meat, the dog will not salivate. This is called a "neutral stimulus" because it does not produce the wanted response in the dog (Slavin, 2015, pg. 101). However, if the meat and the ringing of the bell are presented together, the dog will eventually salivate at the ringing of the bell even when the meat is taken away. This is called a "conditioned stimulus" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 101). This is classical conditioning because the dog learns to salivate with a new stimulus presented that has nothing to do with his natural instinct.
On the other hand, B.F. Skinner believed that behavior and learning were a result of the consequences given in certain situations. This is called "operant conditioning" and refers to "the use of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to change behavior" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 101). His theory came from the observation of rats in what were called "Skinner boxes" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). He observed that when the rats were able to receive food or a positive consequence that learned new behaviors in order to produce those consequences again and again. This lead to the idea that "pleasurable consequences strength behavior while unpleasant consequences weaken it" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 103). Though different in means, both Skinner and Pavlov's theories prove that with the right level of conditioning behavior can be learned.
In order to "produce pleasurable consequences that strengthen behavior a reinforcer is needed. Reinforcers can be "primary" and "satisfy basic human needs" like "food and water", or they can be "secondary" and "acquire their value by being associated with primary reinforcers" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 103). Examples of a secondary reinforcer could money or verbal praise which only becomes valuable to certain people at certain times. Both positive and negative reinforces can strengthen behaviors. For example, a child may "be released from an unpleasant task" as a form of a negative reinforcer that also strengthens behavior (Slavin, 2015, pg. 103).
In addition to positive and negative reinforcers, there is also "intrinsic and extrinsic reinforcers" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 105). Intrinsic reinforcers are tasks that people enjoy doing without receiving any type of reward. Extrinsic reinforcers require "praise or reward to engage in behavior: (Slavin, 2015, pg. 105). Examples of extrinsic reinforcers that increase interest in an activity are "verbal praise and feedback" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 105). As teachers, we must be careful of what types of reinforcers we use so that students do not loose intrinsic motivation. We must also realize how frequently we should apply reinforcement. "Fixed ratio" means that a "reinforcer is given as a fixed number of behaviors" whereas, "variable ratio" is the "unpredictable reinforcement of behaviors" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 110). In addition, there is also "fixed interval and variable interval" schedules which can be followed to encourage certain behaviors in the classroom. These have to do with the amount of time that passes between reinforcement. "Variable ratio and variable interval schedules are very effective for maintaining a high rate of behavior while being highly resistant to extinction" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 111).
In contrast to reinforcers, punishment weakens behavior (Slavin, 2015, pg. 107). There are two types of punishment that can be used. The first is "presentation punishment" which is "any form of unpleasant consequences or aversive stimuli" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 107). The second type of punishment is "removal punishment" that "withdraws a pleasant consequence" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 107). This type of punishment may include taking away something the student enjoys like their access to their friends, a cell phone or a time they enjoy. These types of consequences "should take the mildest possible form" and "only when reinforcement for appropriate behavior has been tried and has failed" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 107).
In addition to using reinforcers or punishment to deal with student behavior, the teacher must remember that it is important to respond immediately to student behavior. This is important because "it makes clear the connection between behavior and consequence" and "increases the informational value of the feedback" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 109). "Shaping" or "guiding students towards goals by reinforcing steps to success" is an important task for a teacher to do (Slavin, 2015, pg. 109). Shaping allows for teachers to break down content for students and positively reinforce their behavior as they are working through the process of learning. Without this positive reinforcement a process of "extinction" or "the disappearance of a learned behavior" may happen (Slavin, 2015, pg. 109). Classroom management can be negatively affected if extinction takes place.
Another theorist, Albert Bandura, who contributed to the understanding of social learning, believed that modeling played a significant role on behavior (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). The idea of modeling contributes to student learning when teachers show student's what to do and how to behave. Bandura developed four stages that encompass the idea of "observation learning" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). The first phase is the "attentional phase where student's pay attention to role models who are modeling correct behavior" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). The next phase is the "retention phase" where students "practice and rehearse" the learned behavior (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). The third state is the "reproduction phase where students match their behavior to the model's" and then finally the "motivational phase' where student's continue with the reproduction of the behavior in hopes to increase their chances of reinforcement" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). In addition to students modeling good behavior, teachers can also teach and reinforce good behavior through "vicarious learning" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 115). Teachers can reinforce positive behaviors of students while also making an impression on those students who are not doing what they should.
Students can also learn through "self-regulation" or observing their own behavior and reinforcing or punishing themselves" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 115). During self-regulation, students use cognitive behavior modifications to question their behavior and come to resolutions on how to correct their behavior. This was first presented by Meichenbaum in 1977 (Slavin, 2015, pg. 116). Students who can self-regulate their behaviors are usually more successful in their education pursuits because they have the ability to recognize their behaviors and correct them when appropriate. Ultimately, the idea of self-regulation is what an intentional teacher would want to help students figure out how to do to lead to more successful outcomes in the classroom. Intentional teachers are "aware of principles of behavioral and social learning and use them flexibly to help students become productive and capable learners" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 118).
Reflection:
As an intentional teacher, it is my responsibility to make sure I understand how my students learn behaviors that I wish for the to implement in my classroom. In my experience, this is easier said then done. I have heard of the theories of Pavlov and Skinner many years ago in my undergraduate classes but it was interesting to revisit them now with many years of teaching behind my belt. I can see merit in both of the theories. Students have many natural instincts when certain stimuli are presented as noted by Pavlov. In fact, many times the challenge in the classroom comes in when trying to correct those behaviors that occur naturally or instinctively. I tend to side more with Skinner's ideas of operant conditioning in working with students in my classroom. I strive to use positive reinforcers when dealing with behavior but must admit that occasionally I find myself using punishment as a means to deal with negative behaviors that are occurring within my classroom.
Praise and feedback are two of the positive secondary reinforcers that I try to use most often in my classroom. From the beginning of the school year when calling on students to answer questions or observing behaviors in my classroom, I try to make it a point to praise students for exhibiting good behavior. For example, if a student raises their hand and waits patiently to be called on as referenced in the text, I would offer praise for exhibiting the correct behavior. If a group is staying on task and working to complete an assignment without any redirection, I would say aloud for the class to hear how much I appreciate that group's effort level on the assigned task. This tends to lead to the other groups correcting their own behaviors (self-regulation) and getting back on task.
Though, I try to stick with using positive or negative reinforces to deal with student behavior in the classroom, occasionally, I use punishment to accomplish this goal. Most often removal punishment is the means to which I find myself using. I would say that cell phone usage tends to be the one area in which removal punishment seems to work. My students are addicted to their phones and most of the time do not pay attention to what is going on in class because they are so distracted by their cell phone. It seems that removal punishment when they are actively using their phones is the only way to get them to pay attention. However, most of the time asking them to put away their phone only is a temporary solution. I found it interesting that the text said that punishment should only be used when all reinforcers have been tried and are not working and only in the mildest form. Aside from the phone issue, I do not usually have to employ punishment in the classroom and really do try to avoid it if at all possible.
Another concept that the text mentioned which I had not though too much about was the ratio of which we should apply reinforcement. I believe I may have used fixed ratio in my beginning years of teaching when it was more important for me to establish myself as the authority in the classroom. I was a young, new teacher and in the high school environment, I wanted students to understand that they need to respect my authority as the teacher in the classroom. As the years have progressed, I find myself using more of a variable ratio of applying reinforcement in my classroom. Some days I have to pick my battles and I try very hard not to let students behavior ever get to the point where constant attention has to be enforced. I do agree with the text that the variable ratio leads to more positive student behavior and helps to avoid extinction.
As the text concluded, it reviewed Bandura's theories on social learning. I actually thought this part of the chapter was the most closely aligned with my own teaching practices. I believe I try to walk my student's through the four stages outlined by Bandura though I had never read about his theories before. I think that modeling is probably one of the most important things you can do to help student's learn. Especially in English , students need to walk through steps and see examples to understand how to write effectively. My students are on-level and struggle with many of the concepts we teach in 9th grade. When I can model and provide and example for them, they always have a much easier time understanding and learning. In addition, I also strive to do everything I can to lead my student's towards self-regulation. I think that by high school this is something that they must learn in order to be successful in the future. When students are able to look at their own behavior and correct it, I have accomplished much more than just teaching them the content of my subject, but rather helped them to achieve a life skill that will benefit them in the future.
Reference
Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Pearson.
Analysis:
All students have the capacity to learn new things. Sometimes students may learn what you want them to learn and sometimes they may learn a behavior that you did not mean to teach them. This type of learning takes place through observation and conditioning. Learning "is defined as a change in an individual caused by experience (Schunk, 2012)" or "long-lasting change in the learner's knowledge as a result of the learner's experiences" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). Two leading theorists, Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner, both believed that conditioning was involved in learning but classified the conditioning in different ways.
Pavlov believed that learning took place when a subject was presented with a stimulus. His classic example is seen when a dog is presented with a piece of meat (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). When the dog sees the meat he begins to salivate (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). This is called an "unconditioned response" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). The dog does not need any training to have this experience, seeing the meat produces hunger in the dog and therefore he salivates naturally (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). In contrast, if you introduce a different stimulus, such as ringing a bell instead of presenting the meat, the dog will not salivate. This is called a "neutral stimulus" because it does not produce the wanted response in the dog (Slavin, 2015, pg. 101). However, if the meat and the ringing of the bell are presented together, the dog will eventually salivate at the ringing of the bell even when the meat is taken away. This is called a "conditioned stimulus" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 101). This is classical conditioning because the dog learns to salivate with a new stimulus presented that has nothing to do with his natural instinct.
On the other hand, B.F. Skinner believed that behavior and learning were a result of the consequences given in certain situations. This is called "operant conditioning" and refers to "the use of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to change behavior" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 101). His theory came from the observation of rats in what were called "Skinner boxes" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 100). He observed that when the rats were able to receive food or a positive consequence that learned new behaviors in order to produce those consequences again and again. This lead to the idea that "pleasurable consequences strength behavior while unpleasant consequences weaken it" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 103). Though different in means, both Skinner and Pavlov's theories prove that with the right level of conditioning behavior can be learned.
In order to "produce pleasurable consequences that strengthen behavior a reinforcer is needed. Reinforcers can be "primary" and "satisfy basic human needs" like "food and water", or they can be "secondary" and "acquire their value by being associated with primary reinforcers" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 103). Examples of a secondary reinforcer could money or verbal praise which only becomes valuable to certain people at certain times. Both positive and negative reinforces can strengthen behaviors. For example, a child may "be released from an unpleasant task" as a form of a negative reinforcer that also strengthens behavior (Slavin, 2015, pg. 103).
In addition to positive and negative reinforcers, there is also "intrinsic and extrinsic reinforcers" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 105). Intrinsic reinforcers are tasks that people enjoy doing without receiving any type of reward. Extrinsic reinforcers require "praise or reward to engage in behavior: (Slavin, 2015, pg. 105). Examples of extrinsic reinforcers that increase interest in an activity are "verbal praise and feedback" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 105). As teachers, we must be careful of what types of reinforcers we use so that students do not loose intrinsic motivation. We must also realize how frequently we should apply reinforcement. "Fixed ratio" means that a "reinforcer is given as a fixed number of behaviors" whereas, "variable ratio" is the "unpredictable reinforcement of behaviors" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 110). In addition, there is also "fixed interval and variable interval" schedules which can be followed to encourage certain behaviors in the classroom. These have to do with the amount of time that passes between reinforcement. "Variable ratio and variable interval schedules are very effective for maintaining a high rate of behavior while being highly resistant to extinction" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 111).
In contrast to reinforcers, punishment weakens behavior (Slavin, 2015, pg. 107). There are two types of punishment that can be used. The first is "presentation punishment" which is "any form of unpleasant consequences or aversive stimuli" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 107). The second type of punishment is "removal punishment" that "withdraws a pleasant consequence" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 107). This type of punishment may include taking away something the student enjoys like their access to their friends, a cell phone or a time they enjoy. These types of consequences "should take the mildest possible form" and "only when reinforcement for appropriate behavior has been tried and has failed" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 107).
In addition to using reinforcers or punishment to deal with student behavior, the teacher must remember that it is important to respond immediately to student behavior. This is important because "it makes clear the connection between behavior and consequence" and "increases the informational value of the feedback" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 109). "Shaping" or "guiding students towards goals by reinforcing steps to success" is an important task for a teacher to do (Slavin, 2015, pg. 109). Shaping allows for teachers to break down content for students and positively reinforce their behavior as they are working through the process of learning. Without this positive reinforcement a process of "extinction" or "the disappearance of a learned behavior" may happen (Slavin, 2015, pg. 109). Classroom management can be negatively affected if extinction takes place.
Another theorist, Albert Bandura, who contributed to the understanding of social learning, believed that modeling played a significant role on behavior (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). The idea of modeling contributes to student learning when teachers show student's what to do and how to behave. Bandura developed four stages that encompass the idea of "observation learning" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). The first phase is the "attentional phase where student's pay attention to role models who are modeling correct behavior" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). The next phase is the "retention phase" where students "practice and rehearse" the learned behavior (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). The third state is the "reproduction phase where students match their behavior to the model's" and then finally the "motivational phase' where student's continue with the reproduction of the behavior in hopes to increase their chances of reinforcement" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 114). In addition to students modeling good behavior, teachers can also teach and reinforce good behavior through "vicarious learning" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 115). Teachers can reinforce positive behaviors of students while also making an impression on those students who are not doing what they should.
Students can also learn through "self-regulation" or observing their own behavior and reinforcing or punishing themselves" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 115). During self-regulation, students use cognitive behavior modifications to question their behavior and come to resolutions on how to correct their behavior. This was first presented by Meichenbaum in 1977 (Slavin, 2015, pg. 116). Students who can self-regulate their behaviors are usually more successful in their education pursuits because they have the ability to recognize their behaviors and correct them when appropriate. Ultimately, the idea of self-regulation is what an intentional teacher would want to help students figure out how to do to lead to more successful outcomes in the classroom. Intentional teachers are "aware of principles of behavioral and social learning and use them flexibly to help students become productive and capable learners" (Slavin, 2015, pg. 118).
Reflection:
As an intentional teacher, it is my responsibility to make sure I understand how my students learn behaviors that I wish for the to implement in my classroom. In my experience, this is easier said then done. I have heard of the theories of Pavlov and Skinner many years ago in my undergraduate classes but it was interesting to revisit them now with many years of teaching behind my belt. I can see merit in both of the theories. Students have many natural instincts when certain stimuli are presented as noted by Pavlov. In fact, many times the challenge in the classroom comes in when trying to correct those behaviors that occur naturally or instinctively. I tend to side more with Skinner's ideas of operant conditioning in working with students in my classroom. I strive to use positive reinforcers when dealing with behavior but must admit that occasionally I find myself using punishment as a means to deal with negative behaviors that are occurring within my classroom.
Praise and feedback are two of the positive secondary reinforcers that I try to use most often in my classroom. From the beginning of the school year when calling on students to answer questions or observing behaviors in my classroom, I try to make it a point to praise students for exhibiting good behavior. For example, if a student raises their hand and waits patiently to be called on as referenced in the text, I would offer praise for exhibiting the correct behavior. If a group is staying on task and working to complete an assignment without any redirection, I would say aloud for the class to hear how much I appreciate that group's effort level on the assigned task. This tends to lead to the other groups correcting their own behaviors (self-regulation) and getting back on task.
Though, I try to stick with using positive or negative reinforces to deal with student behavior in the classroom, occasionally, I use punishment to accomplish this goal. Most often removal punishment is the means to which I find myself using. I would say that cell phone usage tends to be the one area in which removal punishment seems to work. My students are addicted to their phones and most of the time do not pay attention to what is going on in class because they are so distracted by their cell phone. It seems that removal punishment when they are actively using their phones is the only way to get them to pay attention. However, most of the time asking them to put away their phone only is a temporary solution. I found it interesting that the text said that punishment should only be used when all reinforcers have been tried and are not working and only in the mildest form. Aside from the phone issue, I do not usually have to employ punishment in the classroom and really do try to avoid it if at all possible.
Another concept that the text mentioned which I had not though too much about was the ratio of which we should apply reinforcement. I believe I may have used fixed ratio in my beginning years of teaching when it was more important for me to establish myself as the authority in the classroom. I was a young, new teacher and in the high school environment, I wanted students to understand that they need to respect my authority as the teacher in the classroom. As the years have progressed, I find myself using more of a variable ratio of applying reinforcement in my classroom. Some days I have to pick my battles and I try very hard not to let students behavior ever get to the point where constant attention has to be enforced. I do agree with the text that the variable ratio leads to more positive student behavior and helps to avoid extinction.
As the text concluded, it reviewed Bandura's theories on social learning. I actually thought this part of the chapter was the most closely aligned with my own teaching practices. I believe I try to walk my student's through the four stages outlined by Bandura though I had never read about his theories before. I think that modeling is probably one of the most important things you can do to help student's learn. Especially in English , students need to walk through steps and see examples to understand how to write effectively. My students are on-level and struggle with many of the concepts we teach in 9th grade. When I can model and provide and example for them, they always have a much easier time understanding and learning. In addition, I also strive to do everything I can to lead my student's towards self-regulation. I think that by high school this is something that they must learn in order to be successful in the future. When students are able to look at their own behavior and correct it, I have accomplished much more than just teaching them the content of my subject, but rather helped them to achieve a life skill that will benefit them in the future.
Reference
Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Pearson.
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